The Louisiana Purchase

It is the 22nd of January 1804, a dark evening in the middle of winter. But in the city of New Orleans on the southern coast of the United States, the weather is still mild. A small carriage drawn by a pair of shabby horses pulls up outside the city's public ballroom. A young man in a dark evening coat and white crevettes jumps out and drops a few coins into the driver's outstretched hand. George Morgan is one of a growing number of Anglo-Americans who have moved into the territory of Louisiana, which has only just been handed over by the French. But the inhabitants of New Orleans are still largely of French descent and their culture and customs define the city. George carries up the short flight of steppes to the Red Brick building and pushes over the heavy door. The large, high-ceiling ballroom is already packed. In the middle, 12 couples are twirling their way through a traditional English dance, able-eaccompanied by the musicians. George watches mesmerized, but the way the ladies gowns reflect the lamp light as they spin and swap partners. Many of the men are American military officers, their coats gleaming with braid and brass buttons. The ball, George finds, is a cosmopolitan affair. Moving through the room, he hears conversations in English from the Americans, French from the Louisianaians, a smattering of Spanish. But the groups are not mixing. As he passes a knot of French military officers standing in a corner muttering darkly, he realizes that something of a bad atmosphere is brewing. The music comes to an end with a flourish from the violinist and the crowd applauds. Sets of four begin to form for another English dance, and George steps forward, hoping to join in. But alongside the courtettes forming, pairs are also standing as if for a French waltz. A murmur of confusion runs through the crowd. Things quickly escalate. Several of the American soldiers begin haranging the musicians, demanding they play another English country real, while the French shout for a waltz. The crowd only falls silent when the governor, 28-year-old William Claibon, climbs onto a bench and shouts for order. Since they have just had an English dance, he says, it is time now for a waltz. His tone brooks no disagreement. The French dancers look pleased, and George reluctantly steps back from the dance floor as the first strains of the music start up. But the dancers barely began when an American advances on the lead violinist demanding a halt to this French music. To the shock of those assembled, he then proceeds to beat the musician with his cane. Soon, the violin is in splinters, and when the cane itself breaks, the slim sword inside it is revealed. Immediately, more weapons are drawn, with American soldiers now facing off against the group of French military officers. As Claibon throws himself between the two sides, George presses himself against the wall to avoid being pulled into the melee as the ball descends into a brawl. Though the city is newly American in name, it is clear that national divisions and resentments inherited from Europe still reign in New Orleans. In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson negotiated the purchase of 820,000 square miles of land from Napoleon. Known as the Louisiana Territory, it included the modern states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, and Colorado, among many others. At the stroke of a pen, the nation almost doubled in size. But the purchase of Louisiana was only the beginning. Immediately, the American government was forced to reckon with a series of difficult questions, not least about how to incorporate this enormous multi-ethnic territory, into the United States, and what to do about the indigenous population who had inhabited the territory for millennia. But why didn't Napoleon agree to sell Louisiana in the first place? How did this territory and its inhabitants become part of the fledgling United States, and what impact do these monumental events have on the course of American history? I'm John Hopkins. From the Noiser Podcast Network, this is a short history of the Louisiana Purchase. From the late 15th century, European explorers have been making claims on North America. But the vast swath of land that will become known as the Louisiana Territory remains untouched by them until 1682, when a Frenchman named René Robert Cavallier reaches the mouth of the Mississippi River. He claims the waterway and the land around it in the name of King Louis XIV, hence the name Louisiana. Over time, the name comes to refer to a vast region, stretching roughly from the Mississippi River westward toward the unexplored plains and mountains and from the Great Lakes in the North down to the Gulf of Mexico. Peter Casta is professor of history at Washington University in St. Louis and author of a number of books on the Louisiana Purchase. In 1699, when the French government announced the creation of this colony called Louisiana, Spain claimed all of what is now Mexico, but as part of that claimed a lot of land that is now the southwestern and western United States, reaching up into states like Colorado, California, Oregon. So that was their claim. The French claimed this big colony of Louisiana. Most importantly to them, they claimed all of what is now Canada. The British, they consolidate their control really in the eastern third of North America. And that's now really the eastern part of the United States into the Midwest. In 1718, the city of New Orleans is founded near the mouth of the river and the Gulf Coast in an area long used by indigenous peoples as a market for goods. Louisiana itself is not a profitable territory, but the city is crucial as a trading post for France. Animal, pelts and other precious commodities from French held Canada are brought down the Mississippi and shipped out of New Orleans for sale in Europe and beyond. But though now, nominally French, much of the land outside of the towns and settlements is still home to a variety of indigenous peoples. And the crucial thing to understand those societies is they're not organized in many cases by the large tribal terms that people often use today. They tended to be organized around groups of villages that were organized either as bands or larger societies. But if you were traveling through there constantly along the way, if you're going through the northern area, you might run into the Aglala Coda, a group that the Europeans call the Titansu. And it was clear that they were in charge. If you headed to the south and the west, you'd run into one of the Comanche bands and it was clear that they were governing the land there. So it's this place that had a large population with very elaborate politics, complex diplomacy, a really far-reaching trade. The newer occupants of the continent from France, Spain and England do not always coexist peacefully in North America, either with their indigenous neighbors or each other. European politics frequently disrupt diplomacy in the Americas. In 1754, conflict breaks out between Britain and France, soon spreading worldwide as the Seven Years War, which reshapes the political map of North America. During the conflict, the British launch a major campaign into French Canada and are victorious. And in the peace negotiations, which conclude in 1763, eight years after the war erupts, the French agree to seed their colony of Canada. That's the bursting that gets held. Well, then the French conclude, if we don't have Canada, which was the moneymaker, we definitely don't need Louisiana, which they then seed to the Spanish. Much of North and Central America is split between British and Spanish control, although large areas of the continent are still not colonized by Europeans. New France, the territory previously claimed by the French in North America, ceases to exist. Aside from the city of New Orleans itself, the land Spain receives from France is still primarily inhabited and controlled by indigenous Americans. They trade food, medicines and building practices with the colonists and receive in return weapons, alcohol, textiles and glass beads. Alongside the European settlers, most of whom are French, even after the Spanish takeover and ever growing number of enslaved Africans are brought into the territory to labor on plantations. Such is the situation in Louisiana when 13 British colonies on the east coast of North America declare independence in July 1776. In the following years, the American colonists fight for their freedom. And though the French no longer have a territorial stake on the mainland, their historic and ongoing rivalry with England convinces them to side with the Americans. Eventually, after a catastrophic defeat at the siege of Yorktown, the British surrender. The Treaty of Paris, formally ending the conflict, is signed in 1783. Aisha owns a bistro. She loves it, but the admin, not so much. Luckily, her Monzo Business Bank account takes some of the strain, like expensing, with real-time visibility and spend limits all managed in one app. So she's free to cook up a storm without having to make a meal of the admin. Make the switch and join over 800,000 other UK businesses already banking with us. Search Monzo Business today. Team plan starts from £25 a month. UK sole traders or limited company directors only. Teas and seas apply. This is a paid advertisement from Indeed. Right now, there's a talented person out there who could take your company to the next level. 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And listeners of this show will get a 100 pound sponsored job credit to help get your job. The premium status it deserves at Indeed.com slash short history. Just go to Indeed.com slash short history right now. And that's it. And that's it. The new nation is hemmed in by European powers, Britain to the north and Spain to the southwest. Crucially, in an era when water is often the fastest means of transportation, the Mississippi River, the Florida Peninsula and much of the Gulf Coast belong to Spain. Whenever possible, people would travel through the river systems. A very common route at that time is that people would, if they were going again from the Eastern Sea Board, they would go on horseback or in a carriage to a place like Pittsburgh where they would then get on the Ohio River and take that either to a point for their west or to the Mississippi River and then down to New Orleans. But we're still talking about a travel time of several weeks. One key early goal for the nascent United States is ensuring access to the river and the port of New Orleans. After negotiations in 1795, the Spanish allow the Americans to sail down the Mississippi and deposit their goods in New Orleans for trade. But though the Spanish relinquish their claim on some of the land that now forms the states of Alabama and Mississippi, they hold on to the Louisiana Territory and the Gulf Coast. But not for long. Because just a few years later, Napoleon is developing his plans to rebuild a French empire in the region. And to do that, he needs something from the Spanish. The French and the Spanish sign a secret treaty through which Spain, seeds, Louisiana to France, back to France, so they're returning it. That's why it's often called the retro session. The French want to acquire it because they think Louisiana can be a source of raw materials for their Caribbean colonies. That's where the money is. And they sign this secret agreement that also has another really weird feature. France will own Louisiana, but the Spanish officials will continue to govern it. It's kind of like France's this absentee landlord. At this point, it's unclear what this deal between European nations will mean for the United States on the other side of the Mississippi River. The president who has to grapple with the retro session and its consequences is Thomas Jefferson. One of the founding fathers and an author of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson becomes the third president of the United States in March 1801. Though he's a passionate advocate for democracy and individual rights, he is nonetheless a slave owner, with around 100 enslaved individuals working on his Virginia plantation at any one time. Whenever I talk about Thomas Jefferson, I start by saying people invest a lot of emotion into this guy. And it can actually make it difficult to make sense of him. Because Americans, as well as people around the world, have long sought to understand the United States through Jefferson. They've seen him as a symbol, whether for good or for ill. The fundamental principle that guides him throughout his adult life is the notion of equality. Now, of course, we know that he had that very tightly defined for him. For him, equality is primarily for Euro-Americans. Jefferson also has mixed views on the idea of American territorial expansion. For the most part, he is uninterested in government led efforts to acquire Newland. When Thomas Jefferson came into office, he had no plan to expand the boundaries of the United States. And his reasons were simple. And they were reasons that he shared with many of his fellow Americans, especially the American political class, regardless of which political party they were from, which they had enough on their plate to keep them busy. Their conclusion was that the United States had large territorial claims, made it larger than most of the countries they compare themselves to, and that that was an enormously difficult challenge for the United States. However, Jefferson does support the spread of white settlers into areas nominally ruled by the US government, but that are largely inhabited by indigenous groups. The area of expansion that mattered to him most was the expansive settlement of white settlers, men and women, families, fanning out throughout the United States. The census of 1800 had shown that the number of people living west of the Appalachian Mountains was really growing. And Jefferson was thrilled by this. Jefferson believed in equality, and he believed that the foundation of that was land ownership. If you could own your own land, you were equal to anybody else. From the moment of his inauguration, Jefferson and his Secretary of State, James Madison, have their hands full, attempting to incorporate the land west of the Appalachian Mountains and north of the Ohio River into the Union. This is known as the Northwest Territory. Having escaped the clutches of the British Empire, they do not wish the United States itself to become an imperial power with its own colonies. So a plan is drawn up whereby newly acquired territories can be governed until they have a large enough population of voting age white men. Only at this point can they become full and equal states. The Northwest Territory is set on this path, and the first state to emerge from it Ohio will achieve statehood in 1803. Preoccupied as they are with westward movement of settlers and the incorporation of the Northwest Territory, when the Americans find out about the secret agreement between France and Spain, they are furious. Not to mention worried. They are afraid that it will negate all of the treaties that the US have and the agreements the US has with Spain. They think it might be a sign that the French want to become this reborn power in North America. The Americans don't know what to do. All they tell is that they are angry. There are knees increases when the leader of the French Republic Napoleon Bonaparte sends a huge force to the Caribbean in 1801. The army is commanded by his brother-in-law Charles Victor Emmanuel Leclerc. For a decade now, the French slave colony of Sandemang has been in revolt. But its sugar plantations are immensely profitable, and Leclerc's orders are to win it back no matter the cost. The expedition shows how serious Napoleon is about reinstating France's empire in the new world. The Louisiana Territory, still governed by Spain, but due to be returned to France in 1803, is a key part of that vision. In 1802, American fears solidify when Spain rescinds their rights to navigate the Mississippi River and deposit goods in your leans. Given Napoleon's imperial ambitions, there seems little hope that the situation will change once France regains control of the Louisiana Territory. American policymakers discuss a variety of solutions to what they are soon calling the Mississippi crisis. As early as 1801, they're starting to say what we really need to do is acquire New Orleans and the Gulf Coast once and for all. Alexander Hamilton has a simple solution. He says the Jefferson administration needs to send the army. They need to invade. They need to seize it. It's completely unrealistic plan. It's partly because Hamilton himself is a militarist. It's also he's kind of challenging the Jeffersonians to do something about this. While American politicians debate how best to resolve the crisis, events in the Caribbean are working in their favor. By the final months of 1802, Leclerc's mission to retake Sandemang, the pearl in the French imperial crown, is faltering. It is the beginning of November 1802. At the military hospital at Lecap in the French colony of Sandemang, chaos rains. In a fetid, crowded ward, a doctor named Paire shakes his head as he fails to find a pulse at his patient's wrist. He nods to two attendants standing nearby who cover the dead man's body with a sheet and remove it to make way for the next patient. And there is always a next patient. Yesterday, 200 soldiers were admitted to the hospital. Paire has long bitter experience of treating men on battlefields, but on Sandemang, they are facing a different kind of enemy. He continues on his rounds. The beds are packed tightly together, the air thick with a smell of sweat and diseased bodies. Every man has the same symptoms, an aching head, a dangerously high fever, pain in their joints. Some clutch their stomachs in agony. Others have a yellow tinge to their skin and the whites of their eyes. There is little Paire can do. Attendants bathe the foreheads of the stricken men with cool water and give them herbal concoctions to try and bring their temperatures down. Some are even subjected to bloodletting, but they are losing more and more lives every day to this unstoppable fever. As he reaches the final bed, another three men are carried in by the comrades. Paire runs his hands through his hair, permanently soaked with sweat and scans the room for space to put the new arrivals. Just then, a junior officer rushes over, who takes him aside and breathlessly tells him he is needed at General Leclerc's residence. There is not a moment to lose. After pausing at the door to jam his bicon hat on his head, he follows the officer out into the velvet night. Once outside, he takes a deep breath, relieved to be free of the clawing smell of the hospital. Then he hurries down the street after the officer. Soon, they are at the General's palace. Once admitted, they are hustled quickly up the stairs to Leclerc's private apartments. The General lies in a grand, foreposter bed as he is done for days. Stained sheets light tangled around his feet. His fine white night shirt is soaked with sweat and even in the small pool of light cast by the bedside candle, Paire can see his skin is yellower than it was this morning. His breathing has turned heavy and rasping. Kneeling by the bedside is his wife, Poline, and their young son. The boy is weeping pitiously, but Poline's eyes are dry as she clutches onto her husband's right hand. The rings under her eyes show she hasn't slept in days. Paire crosses to the bed and takes Leclerc's other wrist in his. His pulse is already weakening. The doctor stands by his General's bed until his knees begin to ache. Until finally he nods at Poline. Leclerc is dead. At last his wife lays her head down on the bed and sobs. The doctor says he's not going to sleep. 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Though a personal tragedy for his wife and young son, Leclerc's death provides relief to the people of Sandermang. Shortly before he fell ill, he suggested to Napoleon that the virtual annihilation of the black adults on the island was necessary to bring the territory back under French control. With his passing and the deaths of tens of thousands of his soldiers from Yellow Fever, his genocidal orders are never carried out. Within two years, Sandermang will be an independent country, bearing its new name of Haiti. The failure of his mission is good news for the United States too, though they are not immediately aware of it. In the spring of 1803, President Jefferson and Secretary of State Madison at last come up with a solution to the Mississippi crisis. They will offer to buy the city of New Orleans for $2.5 million. A man named James Monroe, who will later be elected president himself, is quickly dispatched to Paris to join the American minister already in the city, Robert Livingston. Monroe crosses the Atlantic. He meets up with Livingston and these are two deeply experienced diplomats they were founding fathers. They also had enormous egos. Monroe thinks he's the young generation, fought in the revolution, he's a protégé of Jefferson's Livingston is one of the wealthiest men in New York. Side story, Robert R. Livingston, the R stands for Robert, his secretary is his nephew or cousin, Robert L. Livingston, the L stands for Livingston. So Robert, Robert Livingston and Robert Livingston Livingston, they're both writing to Washington, it's always difficult to sell who's who, back to the story. Madison writes up these very, very detailed instructions. They're a terrific example of how you offer guidance but latitude to someone who you know you're not able to control because once Monroe boards the ship to France, he's out of their control. Madison also wrote up a draft treaty. He says your job is to negotiate a sale of New Orleans and the Florida's. That's it. While Monroe is crossing the Atlantic, events overtake him. With the decimation of their army on Sandermank, it is becoming apparent that the French cannot retake the colony. War between Britain and France in Europe seems imminent and the territory of Louisiana is large, unprofitable and a prime target for British attacks from Canada should war be declared between the two countries. But though Napoleon now recognizes Louisiana as a strategic liability, he would much rather get something for it than end up losing it to the British for nothing. So when Roan Livingston, they're both in Paris, they go out to dinner because they're committed to working together and while they're eating, the French minister of finance, Francois Barbaim Arbok comes by and he comes into talk with them and he says, I have news for you. I think Napoleon is ready to negotiate and you're going to like what he has to say. And it's very tantalizing moment. Why? Why this change? So when Roan Livingston go to meet with Bonaparte and Talley Run, his foreign secretary is there, he's the kind of master negotiator in Europe and they're blown away by what they hear, which is the French say we're ready to deal and we will sell you everything in Louisiana, everything in Louisiana, all or nothing. Over the coming weeks, the American and French negotiators hammer out a treaty. America pledges to buy all the land that the French had ceded to the Spanish and the Spanish had then given back. Beyond that, the boundaries of the territory are not clearly delineated. The price is $15 million, around $350 million in today's money. The news reaches Jefferson and Madison on the 3rd of July 1803. The next day, on the 27th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, the president appears on the White House steps to announce the purchase. With the addition of the 820,000 square mile territory of Louisiana, the United States of America has just doubled in size. But the agreement is only the beginning. On the 20th of October, the Senate ratifies the purchase treaty. Shortly thereafter, the financing is approved and Congress passes legislation enabling Jefferson to take possession of and govern the territory. What they end up doing is they use a template that's worked, the territorial system. This process through which you acquire land, you subdivide it, you constitute it as a territory and eventually becomes a state. What it meant to be a federal territory was that you were quite literally governed federally. The person in charge of every federal territory was a governor, but the governor was not elected. The governor was selected by the president. After Jefferson appoints a young man named William Claibont as governor, the transfer goes off without a hitch. And the territory formally passes from Spain to France. Then on the 20th of December, 1803, the French governor hands it over to Claibont. Almost immediately, the territory purchased from the French is cleaved in two. The small territory of Orleans, governed by Claibont, encompasses roughly the modern state of Louisiana and is centered on the city of New Orleans itself. Many of its inhabitants are European and American, with a sizeable population of enslaved African Americans and free people of color. The much larger territory of Louisiana covers everything else. It is over three times the size of France and far more sparsely populated than New Orleans, at least by white settlers. But it is home to numerous indigenous groups, living far from areas of white settlement, their opinions on the land. The transfer of control have not been sought. For now, at least it makes little immediate difference. It is only in the years to come that the US will exert ever more control over the land and their lives. The governance of the territory of Louisiana is given over to William Henry Harrison. Harrison had been the governor of the Indiana territory right next door. And he's an emerging star among these appointed officials. There's a great book about him called Mr. Jefferson's Hammer, because he had a really tight rule, both over white settlers and Native Americans. Harrison later got elected president in 1840, gave the longest inaugural address in US history. Cotton ammonia died 30 days later. People laugh at that. In 1803 he's 33 years old and he's a very effective governing official. Even after these systems of governance have been erected, the simple but crucial question that remains unanswered concerns the exact boundaries of the land, the Americans have purchased. In the winter Jefferson and Madison start writing to each other saying, what are the boundaries of Louisiana? And the other one writes back, I thought you knew the boundaries of Louisiana. So they really don't know what they've bought. Americans start saying, we think it includes the Florida's, the Gulf Coast and the Florida peninsula. The Spanish immediately say no dice. We know it's not that. We're not going to see that land. Jefferson now orders teams to be assembled, tasked with mapping the new territory, gaining information on geography and resources, and gathering intelligence on its indigenous inhabitants. The first and most famous of these is led by Captain Maryweather Lewis and second lieutenant William Clark. The so-called core of discovery made up of around 40 men leaves Illinois in May 1804 and starts the arduous journey up the Missouri River and into the unknown. It is the 17th of August 1805. High summer in the foothills of the Beaverhead Mountains on the border between modern day Idaho and Montana. The landscape is green, rustling grasses as far as the I can see, interrupted by darker, huge furs and pines. High overhead, a bald eagle's cry rings out. Maryweather Lewis raises a hand to shade his eyes. From his vantage point, a stride, a stocky brown horse, he scans the wild empty landscape. Alongside a few other men, he split from the main expedition force a week ago to scout ahead, but they're now running low on supplies. Having retraced their steps, they should have found their companions by now, including co-leader William Clark. But still, there is no sign of them. Lewis's stomach cramps, reminding him that he is not eaten enough in several days. If they don't reunite with the main expedition soon, they could be in serious trouble. Turning to the man next to him, Lewis points towards a river in the distance, mimin that they should follow its course. The man is a local chief, dressed in a pale, dear skin-shirt and leggings. He and some of his people have been traveling with Lewis for several days now. The language barrier is an issue, but gesturing has got them this far. Notting at Lewis's suggestion, the chief tosses his long black hair over his shoulder, before signaling to his own men to continue towards the river. Now, Lewis hears a shout in the distance. His heart racing, his hand ghost the knife on his belt. Is it their companions or one of the hostile tribes they've been warned about? Rades are not uncommon out on the plains. Reading himself, the chief raises his spear and tells his men to do the same as the shouts grown nearer. But as Lewis squints against the sunlight, he breathes a sigh of relief when he identifies the leader of the group in the distance as none other than William Clark. But before they arrive, he sees someone else, much closer. It's their translator, Sakha Jawiya, hurrying to meet them on foot. Her infant son strapped securely to her back, as always. When she reaches them, however, she entirely ignores Lewis. Instead, she rushes straight over to the chief, greeting him warmly, while he, in turn, is shocked but delighted to see her. He slides from his horse, and soon they are chatting animatedly in a language Lewis does not understand. Meanwhile, Clark and the rest of the expedition have caught up. Lewis claps his friend on the back, relieved to see him again. Finally, their translator finishes her conversation and turns to Lewis and Clark. She explains that the people are shashowny like her. The chief is her brother, although she has not seen him since she was captured by a rival tribe years ago, and taken hundreds of miles away. Clark immediately seizes on the opportunity and asks certain negotiate on their behalf for horses, without which their expedition will grind to a halt right here. Boyed by the reunion, the chief is more than happy to trade, and the Americans invite him and his men to enjoy a hot meal with him, as the details of the deal are finalized. Though just hours ago it seemed doomed to failure, their epic journey across America's new territory can now continue. Lewis and Clark's expedition helps to map the new territory for the American government. A vital role is played by Sakha Jowir, the young Shashone woman, who had been sold into marriage with Tucson-Sharbonne, a French Canadian fur trader employed as an interpreter. Aged only 16 and carrying her newborn son, she guides the expedition along treacherous rivers and across mountainous terrain, finding edible plants and contributing to Lewis and Clark's field notes with her knowledge of the local flora and fauna. When she proves invaluable as a translator and negotiator with the various indigenous peoples they meet along the route. Another purpose of the expedition was to inform indigenous Americans of Louisiana's new owners. Whatever they meet them, they say this land is now owned by the United States, and in their journals they say we met with the Indian leaders and they acknowledged the American claim. And my guess is that these native leaders say, yeah, you're the latest. The French claim the land, the Spanish claim the land, it's our land. But you will be the party we trade and negotiate with now. But to the native peoples who are much closer to US officials, it's more heated to the Osage who control most of what is now Missouri, they immediately begin elaborate negotiations with the United States and they say we are happy to trade with you. We see real opportunities in this. The United States starts trying to make their claims to Osage land more concrete. They use a variety of means in 1808. The US signs a major treaty with the Osage through which they see the large portion of their land and the principal negotiators of that are Maryweather Lewis and William Clark, who by then are in St. Louis. Maryweather Lewis is a territorial governor. William Clark is the principal Indian agent. Still, these negotiations and American claims to the land take decades to become a reality. The United States did not truly govern the land it owns through the Louisiana purchase until the 1870s. Because Native Americans remained the governing authority until then the US manages to extinguish that authority over the course of decades. But it's only what's often now called the Indian Wars of the 1870s that concludes this conflict. Back in the early days after the purchase though, further expeditions are sent under different commanders. For these exacerbate tensions with Spain, whose lands lie to the south and west. As well as concerns about explorers straying into their territory, the Spanish suspect that the United States is trying to forge alliances with indigenous groups against them. Various negotiations now begin to better define where American land ends and Spanish possessions begin. Aside from their boundary disputes, other uncertainties remain, especially in the territory of Orleans. How can a largely French-speaking white population be made American? What role will slavery play? And what is the position of free black people in the territory? Race mattered in the spaces included in the Louisiana purchase because race is central to American history. By which I mean it's so often defined the experiences that people in the United States have had. And I really want to emphasize that point because in the US people argue about this a lot, they're people who say, oh you're just trying to make race part of this as a way to criticize the United States. Others say, you're avoiding race as a way to ignore things. I'm talking about this very differently. What I want to emphasize is that race really did affect how people had their American experience. Rather than simply being a land deal, the Louisiana purchase is crucial in establishing American social and legal norms over its possession and the people who populate them. In 1806, the territory of Orleans passes a new slave law referred to as the black code. The French and Spanish system whereby mixed race people were a distinct group with certain privileges is abolished. And free people of color are designated as legally inferior to whites. The situation for enslaved people worsens too. What they quickly learn as the United States begins to establish forms of its own common law practices onto an older set of legal practices is that various mechanisms through which the enslaved could pursue their freedom suddenly start getting closed off. They can't sue their masters in court. It becomes much more difficult for them to use legal mechanisms to become free. Given their legal supremacy, it is perhaps unsurprising that the white francophone population is content to be absorbed into the United States. Recognizing the economic and political opportunities denied to them as a French colony, they quickly begin agitating for their territory to be made a state and themselves full American citizens. Not all US politicians are convinced and continue to view these Louisiana's as distinctly foreign. And so the men of New Orleans work to prove themselves. They vote, run for office, serve in the militia and do everything they can to prove their loyalty to the United States. It works. Soon they are on a path to statehood. Within a few years the territory of Orleans has an elected territorial government. In the winter of 1811, 43 men from throughout the territory of Orleans come together to write a state constitution. But there is still some unease in Washington at the prospect of admitting this new state into the union. There was an argument in Washington, DC that was very similar to the argument that occurred in 1803 and 1804, which was, could the people of Louisiana govern themselves? And this turned on their ethnic background in the same way that race matters, ethnicity matters. They were people saying, what does it mean to have a population where so many people do not speak the majority language, which is English? What does it mean that they've got this different background? And the crucial thing from my perspective is, first of all, at the end of the day, people also say, what would it mean if we deny them statehood? Then we're an empire. The argument for democracy and citizenship wins. Less than a decade after the purchase, the territory of Orleans is welcomed into the union in 1812 as the state of Louisiana. To avoid confusion, the vast Louisiana territory is renamed the Missouri Territory. Over the next several decades, its exact boundaries are worked out between the USA and Spain. They are finally confirmed in a treaty ratified in 1821, 18 years after America had first acquired Louisiana. But its control over this vast landscape is still, to a great extent, theoretical. The land the United States claimed included states that many people around the world know about now, Colorado, North Dakota, Wyoming. Colorado was governed principally by the Comanche. The Dakotas were governed principally by the peoples of the Sue and language groups. Idaho was governed by people from various native societies. It took decades for it to be true that the United States truly governed these places. And it happens through conflict. Happens in some cases through negotiation, but through repeated conflicts between the United States and Native Americans. And it's really not until the 1870s that the last of the Native peoples who governed land that the United States claimed through Louisiana purchased seated their claims to the federal government. And that will be just this immensely important part of that story. And that story goes hand in glove with the creation of new states, normalizing this process, showing that the United States can expand. By the 1870s, a combination of disease, warfare, territory loss, and the deliberate extermination of bison herds has driven indigenous peoples, including the Comanche, Dakota and Lakota. On to reservations. U.S. control over the territory they bought from France in 1803 is at last absolute. Over the same period, the United States annexes Texas from a newly independent Mexico and fights a war with them over California and New Mexico. Firm boundaries are established between British Canada and American claims in the Pacific Northwest. By the time it finally has control over Louisiana, the U.S. occupies most of the land it does today. The Louisiana purchase is a story of immense geographic and demographic expansion. With hindsight, it is clear that it was not a single event. Instead, it was a process that took decades. And as it unfolded, it crystallized American ideas about political organization, racial hierarchies, national identity, and the destiny of the country. For better or worse, it made the United States into the nation it is today. I ask my students in the classroom, how many of you are from California? How many of you are from Oregon? How many of you are from Kansas? Do you think you should have representation in Congress? And they say, of course. And I say, why? Why do you think you are entitled to that? I am from Pennsylvania, I am from a real state. You know, we declared independence in 1776 and they say, no, no, we have to be part of the U.S. We have to have representation in Congress. And that was a decision that Americans had made in 1787 when they created the Northwest coordinates. But the Louisiana purchase really normalized that and applied it over this enormous area of land. And it's hugely, hugely important. So there are these events that people always have to learn about. And we wonder, was it really that important? Well, the Louisiana purchase was really that important. Next time on Short History, we'll bring you a short history of David Bowie. Bowie is someone who can see how stories go. It can see how trends go and how you need to go left when you're supposed to go right and zigzag and so forth. So you think one of the things he does is provide a template for how as a pot musician you can have a life, have a career. It's a stretch to compare Taylor Swift to him. But you can see Taylor Swift is doing Bowie stuff and that she has every couple of years she has a new look, she has a new thing, she moves here, she moves there. And I think that's a very much a Bowie map. That's next time. If you can't wait a week until the next episode, you can listen to it right away by subscribing to Noiser Plus. Head to www.noiser.com forward slash subscriptions for more information.